Chapter 5: Water

an integrated approach

Norway's rivers and lakes and offshore territorial waters are in generally good condition, although increasingly affected by human activity. In this context, the government sees climate change and the rapidly increasing acidification of the sea as major challenges, and has defined as a strategic objective that "Norwegian coastal and marine areas and inland waters will be managed using an integrated, ecosystem-based approach".

The aim is to minimize cumulative environmental impacts so that "the structure, functioning and productivity of ecosystems and biodiversity are maintained" allowing for "the requirements of human health and welfare".

Accordingly, 2015 is the target date for the completion of "integrated, ecosystem-based management plans" for all Norwegian marine and freshwater areas.

Compared with many other countries, Norway has abundant supplies of clean, fresh water. Nevertheless, pollution from various sources can affect water quality in Norwegian lakes and rivers, while hydropower development is an additional threat to watercourses and river systems. Long-range air pollution, as we have seen in the previous chapter, has caused acidification of lakes and rivers, particularly in southern Norway. Eutrophication of fresh water, caused by excessive inputs of nutrients, disturbs ecosystems and is implicated in algal blooms. The accumulation of mercury in freshwater fish gives additional cause for concern.

Norway's marine environment is also generally clean and healthy, but no less vulnerable to pollution. Coastal waters off southern Norway in particular are affected by discharges from municipal wastewater, agriculture and industry. Long-range pollution arrives via the North Sea, on prevailing winds and in ocean currents.

Chemical concerns
Hazardous chemicals and heavy metals released by industry have polluted a number of harbours and fjords, in many of which high concentrations of hazardous chemicals in bottom sediments are the result of earlier releases of pollutants from industrial activities and polluted seepage from landfills near the coast. Discharges from aquaculture (fish farming) are increasing, particularly along the coast
from Lindesnes, at the southern tip of Norway, to Finnmark in the north.

Eutrophication in Norway's coastal waters is caused both by discharges from local sources (e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus from fish farming) and by long-range transport of pollutants. However, Norwegian discharges of nutrients to the Skagerrak coast, a particular problem area, have been greatly reduced since 1985.

Serious discharges of oil and chemicals into the open sea are in a class of their own. Discharges of oil are classified as either acute, i.e. accidental spills, or operational discharges permitted during normal operations. Acute discharges can contaminate and damage valuable coastal habitats, harming seabirds, fish and other marine species, and crippling tourism.

North Sea

Toxic blooms
Eutrophication can be a deceptively gradual process. Initially, modest inputs of nutrients may have a positive effect on biodiversity, even boosting the productivity of the affected ecosystem. But a surplus will cause the ecosystem to accumulate excessive biomass, resulting in massive algae blooms, reduced light penetration and fouling. Reduced light penetration in the water affects the distribution of attached algae and other water plants. Blooms of toxic blue-green algae severely restrict the use of the water. Decomposition of organic matter, either from increased biological production or inputs from human activities, will also deplete the oxygen, especially in deep, still waters where little circulation occurs.

Once oxygen levels are low, phosphates and other salts will leak out of the bottom sediments, reinforcing the eutrophication process. In extreme situations, the water will contain toxic hydrogen sulphide gas, causing fish to die and bottom areas to rot: Bunnefjorden, at the innermost part of the Oslofjord, is a case in point. Nutrient run-offs from agriculture and municipal drains are often a health hazard, as such sources routinely contain fresh excrement from livestock or man carrying pathological bacteria, viruses or parasites.

In Norway the eutrophication of fresh water tends to occur in low-lying areas, particularly near settlements and agricultural land. Freshwater eutrophication is a problem in the Oslofjord area, the lowlands of eastern Norway, Stavanger and the plain of Jæren, the Trondheimsfjord, and parts of Nordland county. These areas are either densely populated or subject to intensive agricultural or dairy industries.

Nutrient surpluses originating domestically also affect marine habitats in coastal areas such as fjords and skerries, while offshore the entire Skagerrak region is seriously affected by discharges and emissions of nutrients and organic material from the major Continental river systems far beyond Norwegian territorial limits. Inputs of nitrogen via acid rain further aggravate the nutrient surplus.

		In and around the Oslofjord, kelp no longer grows below certain depths

Urbanization and aquaculture
Much of the increase in nutrients in circulation can be traced to the major changes in Norwegian society over the past 50-100 years and the economic developments in more recent decades. More people now live in towns and urban settlements where wastewater can create problems; agricultural production has intensified accordingly, and with it the use of artificial fertilisers - it is no longer necessary to rely on naturally occurring nutrients, as it was a hundred years ago. More traffic and more industry also mean more emissions of nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere, which eventually reach the water system through precipitation or particulates.

The expansion of the fish farming industry has resulted in large increases in discharges of nutrients over the past 20 years. The fish farming industry is now the largest source of man-made discharges of nutrients in Norway, and increases in discharges to the Norwegian coast are mainly attributable to the expansion of that sector. In addition to fish farming, the major Norwegian sources of nutrients and organic materials are agriculture, municipal wastewater and industry.

Along the coast from the Swedish border to Lindesnes at the southern tip of Norway, discharges of phosphorus and nitrogen have been progressively reduced. Agriculture and municipal wastewater are the main sources of discharges of nutrients along the Skagerrak coast - where there is no fish farming.

Greenhouse crop production is a vital part of the agricultural sector in Norway, where the variety of crops that can be grown in the field is limited by the short growing season and special climatic conditions. Closed recycling systems for this method of cultivation can reduce the total consumption of water and nutrient materials while preventing the release of pollutants into river systems and ground water.

Although the main cause of eutrophication in Norwegian lakes is assumed to be agricultural run-off, added inputs of nitrogen through acid rain can increase the growth of plants and algae in some mountain areas.

In and around the Oslofjord, kelp no longer grows below certain depths, probably as the result of reduced light penetration caused by algae suspended in the water. In periods of heavy growth, blooms of green algae close to beaches in the Oslofjord are unpleasant for swimmers and fishermen. It is thought that the most harmful, toxic algae occur more frequently in areas where inputs of nutrients are high.

Surveys show that the Norwegian coast, especially from the Swedish border and west to Lindesnes, is periodically affected by long-range pollution as high concentrations of nutrients and organic matter are transported via ocean currents from Continental sources. Studies of organisms living on the sea bed and bottom sediments along the Skagerrak coast suggest that the impact of organic pollution is greater the further east we go.

Agricultural pollution can occur directly by leakages or spills from manure and silage storage and from livestock and pasture land. Erosion of fertilized fields causes high levels of phosphorus to reach rivers with the displaced soil. Direct leakage from the soil is also an important source of nitrogen contamination.

Emissions and discharges from population and industry affect both the freshwater and marine environments. Municipal sewer systems generally serve urban areas where the wastewater from households and industry is collected and transported to a wastewater treatment plant before being discharged. In less densely populated areas, as in Norway's many mountain and seaside cabin resorts, there are often just septic tanks or basic separate treatment facilities, and in some cases unhygienic conditions may occur at the outlet. Industries are generally connected to the municipal sewers or have their own treatment plants.

Run-off due to precipitation and natural processes in the soil and rock is another major source of nutrients. Traditionally, contributions from the atmosphere have been considered part of this background; but much of this input is now thought to be anthropogenic.

Declarations and Directives
Under the terms of the North Sea Declarations and the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR), Norway has undertaken to reduce discharge of nutrients into its coastal waters from the Swedish border to Lindesnes by 50 per cent. The target was initially set for 1995, but neither Norway nor any of our neighbouring countries have come even close to reaching the target for nitrogen. For phosphorus, on the other hand, the target has been reached. Another priority is the reduction of nitrogen runoff along the coast from Hvaler to Singlefjord and inner Oslofjorden. This is a step towards meeting our obligations under EU Directives, on purification of wastewater from urban areas and nitrate from agriculture.

The most important point sources of agricultural discharges are leakages from storage facilities for livestock manure and silage effluent. Leakages may be caused by poor construction, insufficient storage capacity or accidents. Spills may also occur when facilities are emptied. Although discharges of this kind may be serious on a local scale and cause severe pollution, there is no doubt the largest total discharges of nutrients to water - and the main cause of long-term pollution problems - are attributed to run-off.

More intensive farming can cause the run-off of nutrients to increase, partly because larger quantities of fertilizers are used and larger numbers of animals are kept on each farm. To rationalize farming operations and use the land more intensively, vegetation belts along watercourses are often removed and streams are piped or canalized. Such changes reduce the capacity of the environment to absorb excess nutrients, and can indirectly result in more pollution.

Regulations have been laid down pursuant to the Pollution Control Act aimed at limiting agricultural discharges of nutrients and minimizing the environmental damage they may cause. Regulations relating to manure and to silage effluent are intended to reduce point
discharges from storage facilities and run-off when manure is used on agricultural land, while a regulation relating to the levelling of agricultural land aims to control run-off from areas that have been levelled.

The Ministry of Agriculture can also use other regulations (relating to fertilizer management, for example) and grant schemes for encouraging conversion to more environmentally-friendly cultivation techniques. An earlier programme of grants for technical facilities to improve environmental conditions in agriculture resulted in a considerable reduction in point discharges. The ministry is also responsible for drawing up action programmes under the EU nitrates directive.

Fish farming
Discharges from fish farms are another major local source of nutrients: the same types of nutrients and organic matter as domestic wastewater and discharges from agriculture and certain types of industry, with the same impact on environmental conditions in fjords and coastal waters. Almost all fish farms are located north of the Skagerrak coast, generally using net cages in the sea. Feed spills and fish excrement are simply released into the environment.

A small fish farm, producing perhaps 500 tonnes of salmon a year, discharges about the same volume of nutrients as a town of 5000 to 7500 people. The greatest impact is local, in the immediate vicinity of each facility. In the worst cases, discharges have caused the sediments and water under a fish farm to "rot".

Fish only thrive where the water quality is good, and grow poorly and become less resistant to disease in polluted localities. Polluted sites therefore have to be abandoned and the fish farms moved. This used to be a major problem both in environmental terms and for the fish farmers themselves.

If there are several fish farms in a fjord, their overall discharges may also cause eutrophication. This is not yet a problem in Norway, although it is seen as a risk in some fjords. Now that such risks are understood, industry and authorities are focusing on the devel-opment of sustainable fish farming that can be continued indefinitely at the same locations.

The fisheries authorities' aim is to ensure that fish farming remains a profitable source of livelihood in coastal districts. Restrictions have been introduced on the number of licences that are issued and the quantity of feed a fish farmer is permitted to use per year.

Feed for thought
Fish farmers themselves are of course interested in producing as much fish as possible at the lowest possible cost. More effective production also benefits the environment. Discharges per tonne of fish produced have been dramatically reduced with the introduction of better quality feed and improved feeding routines.

While discharges of nutrients from industrial and municipal wastewater are reduced by wastewater treatment plants, this is clearly impossible for discharges from fish farming in net pens, and other solutions are required in order to limit the environmental pressure exerted by the industry.

Changes in feed quality and feeding routines are one such solution. Previously, fish farmers often used wet feeds based on ground-up fish waste, much of which was not eaten but sank to the bottom and rotted, resulting in large discharges of nutrients and organic matter.
During the 1990s, the fish farming industry and feed producers, with support from the programme for cleaner technology run by the Ministry of the Environment, developed new feed types. Modern dry feed pellets can be adapted to age of the fish and time of year.

Fish farmers have become much more aware that feed losses are both environmentally harmful and wasteful in financial terms, and are therefore paying much greater attention to
feeding routines. Systems have been developed to collect feed that sinks through the net pens without being eaten and to stop the supply of food automatically when the fish are no longer eating; alternative systems use underwater cameras that show when the fish have stopped feeding or equipment for collecting fish excrement before it sinks to the bottom.

A Norwegian standard for monitoring the immediate environment near fish farms has been drawn up. Observations of the sediment-dwelling fauna (numbers and species) are an important element of such programmes, and must be recorded, as are measurements of water chemistry, (pH, oxygen and carbon content, etc.).

According to the standard, measurements must be taken at several sites under and around fish farms, and repeated at regular intervals. The advantage of a monitoring standard is that when all fish farms are monitored in the same way, the results are more readily comparable.

Water shortages
Only about three per cent of the world's water is fresh, and only a small fraction of one per cent of the total is accessible in lakes, rivers and reservoirs - the rest is either frozen in polar ice or out of reach deep underground.

The United Nations has warned repeatedly that billions of people, much of the world's population, will face severe shortages of fresh water in the near future if consumption continues at the present rate. Fierce national competition over water resources will cause violent conflicts or even full scale wars in the worst-hit regions. Even in Europe, the UN Economic Commission for Europe estimates that at least tens of millions of people still do not have access to clean water and sanitation, and that wasted water is costing Europe about billions of dollars a year.

A recent UN report notes that "important decisions affecting water management are made outside the water sector and are driven by external, largely unpredictable forces - forces of demography, climate change, the global economy, changing societal values and norms, technological innovation, laws and customs and financial markets. Many of these external drivers are dynamic, and changes are accelerating."

Interestingly, although a scarcity of water is most unlikely ever to be a problem in Norway, the country has become something of a world leader in water conservation technology. Water-restrictive showers - which also save energy by using a minimum of hot water - are just one example of a Norwegian innovation in this vital field.

Svalbard