Chapter 1: Green thoughts

The Ides of March 2010 was fast approaching, the headlines were suitably overwrought with doom and gloom... but the Research Council of Norway was full of the joys of spring.

"A new leader for Norwegian industry-oriented research has taken the helm", the council proclaimed.  “The recently appointed Minister of Trade and Industry Trond Giske believes in user-driven research and seeks to encourage private companies to increase their R&D investments."

The minister's vision of the near future included "a clear move in the direction of renewable energy", he said. "The government’s environmental policy will place stricter requirements on emissions for example, and high environmental taxes will encourage the private sector to develop new technology. I also think that Norwegian solar cell manufacturers will achieve great success."

Towards the end of the month, the EU's "Community R&D Information Service" (CORDIS) noted that Norway was developing "a new strategy for research that will promote greater international collaboration [which] will establish a broad international dimension to its research activities and help Norwegian researchers compete for more funding abroad".

Significantly, the cross-border issues to be addressed in the new strategy were identified by CORDIS as "energy, climate, environment and health", implying (as in the scenario suggested by Trond Giske) that the development of environmental technology would be high on the agenda.

In May, this faith in the future was borne out yet again when the government announced a three-year, NOK 500 million programme to develop new environmental technology. Noting that the path from research results to production and sales was often rockier than it should be, environment minister Erik Solheim said he was making the investment because "in many cases, the market alone is not sufficient to bring about the development of environmental technologies that society needs". Clearly, this once-obscure sector had become a force to reckon with in the Norwegian economy. And not only at home: barely a year earlier, in the spring of 2009, Norway's sovereign wealth fund - the world's second largest and Europe's biggest equity investor - had announced a NOK 10 billion investment programme focusing on environmental technology on a global basis.

Defining the buzzword
But what exactly is "environmental technology"? In recent years, the expression has become something of a buzzword for numerous commercial, industrial and special-interest groups, each vying to claim the sector as its own. Working out a comprehensive definition is more difficult.

NIFU STEP, the Norwegian Institute for Studies in Innovation, Research and Education, sees "green technology", as the sector is also known, as an umbrella term for "process technology, purification technology, treatment of waste such as recycling" and the development of "products and technical equipment to observe and preserve the environment by preventing pollution".

 

A broad international dimension

 

 

The U.S. National Safety Council goes into some detail: "An all-inclusive term used to describe pollution control devices and systems, waste treatment processes and storage facilities, and site remediation technologies and their components that may be utilized to remove pollutants or contaminants from, or to prevent them from entering, the environment. Examples include wet scrubbers (air), soil washing (soil), granulated activated carbon units (water), and filtration (air, water). Usually, this term applies to hardware-based systems; however, it can also apply to methods or techniques used for pollution prevention, pollutant reduction, or containment of contamination to prevent further movement of the contaminants, such as capping, solidification or vitrification, and biological treatment." A more nuanced approach might also take into account the role of the sciences, both pure and applied, plus the all-important principle of sustainability (the balancing act reconciling preservation of the natural environment and natural resources while turning a profit) and other social and/or economic implications of this rapidly expanding sector. Norway's Climate and Pollution Agency (KLIF), formerly the Pollution Control Authority, sees the value of environmental technology "in solving a number of environmental challenges" and forming "a basis for Norwegian business development as well".

KLIF continues: "Measures for supporting the development and use of environmental technology may be regulatory, financial or administrative. A combination of different measures usually has to be employed to achieve both environmental improvements and business development." The agency also notes the expression by successive governments of the "ambition to support export of Norwegian environmental technology as part of development cooperation".

Indeed, the export of environmental technology to developing countries, an increasingly important aim of Norwegian policy, is a prime example of the sector's ability to do well by doing good. Another of the beauties of environmental technology is its potential to protect or improve the environment while stimulating scientific and commercial innovation. A report published in 2007 by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) found that investment in just one area of environmental technology, sustainable energy, was increasing by over 40 per cent, or $70+ billion, a year worldwide, "in response to a number of global challenges and concerns, including climate change, increasing energy demand and energy security". The investment community recognized "the importance of the sector and the opportunities for value creation it presents", the report continued. "Consumers and companies are supporting the roll-out of a new energy infrastructure and a change in individual and corporate behaviour. Most importantly, governments and policy-makers are introducing legislation and support mechanisms to accelerate the development of the sector."

According to the international environmental technology investment group CleanTech, global "green" venture investment - that is to say, risk capital put into start-ups and smaller companies - totalled a record $8.4 billion in 2008: a 38 per cent increase on the previous year, notwithstanding the onset of recession. In 2009, the total was down 33 per cent, reflecting the continuing economic decline of the same period. However, the decline was far less steep than in other sectors: while overall venture capital fell back to 2003 levels, according to the U.S. National Venture Capital Association (NVCA), green venture capital ended the year at 2007 levels.

Strategies and initiatives

		Saving the world while turning a profit

As early as 2005, an "Environmental Technology Project", launched by KLIF, aimed to develop a "clear strategy for environmental technology research, development and innovation [which] can strengthen Norwegian enterprises". Norway is also part of an EU initiative known as the Environmental Technology Action Plan (ETAP). As part of the ETAP process, all participating countries are obliged to draw up a national "road map" describing their priorities and initiatives.

The Norwegian road map focuses on the process whereby "reducing energy and resource use often reduces costs as well, thus improving the competitive position of the technology in question" so that "environmental technologies can contribute to industrial development and higher employment in addition to environmental improvements".

Lower costs, in turn, make these technologies more accessible to developing countries and so help them to satisfy their urgent need for economic growth without putting too much pressure on the environment. "In this way, environmental technologies can provide a basis for increasing value creation while reducing environmental pressure and global poverty."

Growing international interest in the sector has certainly opened up export opportunities. "A number of Norwegian companies and research communities are already world leaders in various environmental technologies", the authors of the road map declare. "Norwegian companies are at the forefront of developments internationally in the fields of waste management, water, air and energy."

 

Read the label!
A driving force behind the green technology sector is the explosive growth in public awareness of environmental issues. Norwegians, in common with other western societies, are becoming obsessed with the perceived dangers of global warming, pollution and the need to restrain their appetites for consumption... just as billions in the developing world are beginning to industrialize and to create consumer societies of their own.

One highly visible result in the west has been the rise of the ecolabel: seals of environmental approval such as the EU Flower and the Nordic Swan. The Swan logo, launched by the Nordic Council of Ministers in 1989, is now available for scores of product groups and over 2000 individual products, covering anything from washing-up liquids and other household items to furniture and even hotels.

The Swan certifies that products fulfil certain green criteria as determined by samples from independent laboratories, certificates and control visits. The label is usually valid for three years, after which the criteria are revised and the company must reapply for a licence.

"In this way, we ensure that products better suited to the environment are constantly being developed", says the Nordic Ecolabelling Board.

A happy birthday
In 2002, the Norwegian government threw a jubilee birthday party for its Ministry of Environment, one of the first in the world, which had been founded 30 years previously in May 1972. In his keynote speech, then environment minister Børge Brende reminded his guests what a good year that had been.

1972 had also been the year, he recalled, when the international community finally recognized that "mankind had become so intelligent and so powerful that we could destroy the very foundation of our lives - and of our descendants' lives". As a result, the Stockholm conference on the human environment had been convened, and the United Nations Environment Programme established.

For the first time, global environmental management had become a real possibility. At the same time, Norway itself had been adapting to major changes. During the 20th century the population had almost doubled, from 2.3 million to 4.4 million (it has since topped 4.8m). Norway had become a welfare state. Income, education and consumption levels rose dramatically. Norway's industrial structure and settlement patterns were transformed.

Today, three of every four Norwegians live in cities, towns or urban areas, compared with only one in three at the beginning of the century. Many of these urban areas are relatively scattered, which tends to result in fairly long commuting distances and large daily transport volumes.

A substantial proportion of Norwegian industry is based on the exploitation of natural resources. The petroleum industry on the Norwegian continental shelf has expanded so that Norway consistently ranks among the world's top exporters and producers of oil and gas. Revenues from this sector have contributed to a high standard of living and impressive individual purchasing power, and are the main reason for Norway's favourable economic position in world economic league tables. Petroleum revenues have also boosted personal mobility (kilometres travelled per person), in particular the use of private cars. As the Norwegian economy is so dependent on raw materials and exports, there is a large volume of goods transport. The demand for rapid transport and door-to-door delivery of goods is also rising.

Energy use in Norway has always been high because of our cold climate, and the large volume of transport. The availability of cheap hydropower has resulted in a long tradition of high electricity consumption.

International priorities
These are some of the most important domestic factors, historical and economic, that have shaped Norway's approach to environmental issues in the 21st century. However, they are far from being the whole story.

National environmental policies also evolve in response to international priorities. Norway is an enthusiastic participant in this process, seeing it not only as a means of addressing global environmental problems as such, but also as a way of minimizing environmental damage at home caused by activities in other countries. An additional goal is to promote sustainable development and improvements to the environment in neighbouring areas and in poorer countries.

Regional as well as global factors are involved in a range of environmental events including climate change, depletion of the ozone layer, acid rain, the spread of eco-toxic chemicals and the loss of biological diversity. Such problems in neighbouring countries often have a direct and immediate impact on the Norwegian environment. Joint Nordic projects, bilateral work with Russia, programmes in the Barents Sea area and agreements involving all the Arctic countries are examples of corresponding collaborative measures at regional level.

Cooperation at European level is organized within the framework of the European Economic Area (EEA) Agreement between the EU and EFTA countries and the UN-ECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe), where work with countries in Central and Eastern Europe plays a central role. According to a study carried out by the Norwegian environmental nongovernmental organization (NGO) "Future in Our Hands" (FiVH), thanks to non-EU member Norway's affiliation with the EU through the EEA, Brussels is responsible for 80-90 per cent of national environmental legislation. This has brought about "a tightening of Norwegian environmental protection", the report notes.

 

 

Oslo: three of every four Norwegians live in urban areas

 

 

The globalization of the world economy is another powerful influence on national environmental policies. At global level, one of the primary goals of Norwegian policy is to promote sound environmental management and the preservation of biological diversity through international diplomacy. Norway works with developing countries to devise sustainable production systems, encourage sustainable use of biological diversity natural resources, and reduce pollution. Another priority area, both at home and abroad, is protection and sustainable management of cultural heritage and cultural environments.

Success in international cooperation on environmental issues requires participating countries to negotiate, ratify and implement ambitious and legally binding agreements. Such agreements should be cost-effective across national boundaries while allowing for a reasonable measure of burden sharing between rich and poor countries.

Norway is of course a party to a number of international treaties and conventions, which regulate environmental issues. The vocabulary of these diplomatic instruments can seem confusing, but in fact the distinctions are relatively straightforward. Typically, for example, a document is termed a "treaty" if signed by a small number of nations and a "convention" if signed by many. "Accords" and "agreements" can describe almost any such document, more or less important, multilateral or bilateral, while a "protocol" is generally an addition or supplement to a pre-existing accord.

The well-known "Kyoto protocol", for example, under which national governments commit themselves to meeting targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, is linked to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC).

Norwegian policy often involves efforts to widen the scope and effect of existing agreements. These can be expanded to embrace further signatories, or their provisions can be tightened or made to work more efficiently. Advances in international environmental cooperation - and technology - also mean in some cases that existing treaties need to be revised or replaced.

Since the 1972 U.N. Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, international environmental legislation has proliferated: there are now hundreds of multilateral environmental conventions or treaties, many with one or more protocols attached, and most of which have been negotiated since the Stockholm conference. Hundreds more treaties are bilateral, while a huge body of "soft law" (declarations, action plans, agendas, resolutions, decisions and the like) exerts a more indirect influence on international and domestic policies.

 

 

Untouched wilderness: Jotunheimen

 

Biodiversity and conservation
Norway is blessed with a wide variety of natural habitats and a sparse human population. Only relatively recently has the way we use our environment begun to threaten some of these habitats and the species they support, and to impoverish the countryside.

The message of the Convention on Biological Diversity, which was opened for signature at the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, was that we must deal with the underlying causes of such threats. The most important of these are the destruction of habitats, the introduction of alien species, overexploitation and pollution. Norway ratified the Convention in July 1993.

"Biological diversity" (or "biodiversity") are words we now use to describe variation at all levels in the natural world, from ecosystems and habitats to species, including variation within each species (genetic diversity).

Although truly untouched wilderness hardly exists in Norway any longer, we still come closer to that pristine state, particularly in upland and mountain regions and in the north, than many other European countries.

However, river deltas in low-lying areas of southern Norway are just one example of Norwegian habitats under serious threat from intensive use and overexploitation.

Threatened species

		On the Red list: Arctic fox

Almost 4,000 species have been placed on the Norwegian Red List of threatened species of fauna and flora. Roughly half of these are woodland species, while about a third are associated with agricultural landscapes.

Land use is the most important negative factor in Norway, especially forestry and agricultural activities, but also destruction of natural habitats by heavy industry, road-building, housing developments, etc. Pollution and climate change also put significant pressure on biological diversity. In the coastal waters and oceans, the most important environmental pressures are overexploitation and pollution. The introduction of alien species is a growing problem.

At national level, Norway has adopted the principle that all sectors must take responsibility for their impact on biological diversity, and the government is acting on many fronts to safeguard plants and animals. Valuable habitats, areas and species have been protected; more recently, the focus has been on legislation aimed at restricting or banning specific activities.

In the meantime, some previously declining species are recovering thanks to tighter hunting and fishing regulations and to reductions in hazardous chemicals and other pollutants entering the environment. Conditions are improving in acidified habitats, where fish and other animals are slowly returning to some rivers and lakes that have been lifeless for many years.

The Wildlife Act of 1981 introduced the principle that all mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians and their eggs, nests and lairs are protected: hunting is only permitted in cases where hunting seasons have been specified. Many species had been protected long before this, because their populations were seriously depleted: for example, the Arctic fox Alopex lagopus was protected as early as 1930. The Wildlife Act also regulates hunting of many species in order to maintain stocks and provide a surplus that can be harvested.

An Act relating to salmonids and fresh-water fish is intended to ensure that populations and their habitats are managed so as to maintain natural diversity and productivity. Other relevant legislation includes the Nature Conservation Act, the Planning and Building Act, the Forestry Act, the Pollution Control Act, the Gene Technology Act and the Penal Code, which contains a general clause on environmental crime. International cooperation to deal with environmental problems has also become more and more extensive during the past century, and is now considered essential. Norway has signed a number of international agreements on nature conservation that involve commitments to safeguard threatened species. As well as the Biological Diversity Convention, these include, the Bern Convention, the Bonn Convention, CITES and the Ramsar Convention. The government has also agreed to contribute up to a billion dollars to reduce deforestation in the Amazon, making Norway the first contributor to Brazil's new Amazon Fund.

The United Nations has declared 2010 the International Year of Biodiversity, describing the move as "a celebration of life on earth and of the value of biodiversity for our lives" and urging nations "to take action in 2010 to safeguard the variety of life on earth".

		Wood carving in "Viking Valley", Gudvangen

Maritime matters
As a maritime nation, Norway has always considered its famously productive fisheries industry a vital part of its economy and culture. Modern Norwegian resource management pursues a policy of long-term sustainable harvesting based on the best scientific advice available and relying heavily on the precautionary principle, according to which measures to protect habitats or species against certain threats are justifiable even if scientific evidence confirming those threats is not yet complete.

Norway's Institute of Marine Research is one of the largest such institutions in the world. Its pioneering work in the study of cold-water coral reefs has caused something of a scientific sensation in recent years.

Cultural heritage
One approach to conservation that has grown in importance involves the concept of "cultural heritage", variously defined in terms of social and historical forces which have left their mark on the landscape or in other ways impacted - usually but not necessarily positively - on the natural environment. This can include the built environment and can cover anything from farmlands or sites of archaeological importance to abandoned mining settlements, historic buildings and neighbourhoods, coastal communities or even entire towns and cities.

Norway's strict Cultural Heritage Act, dating from 1978, focuses on landscapes associated with a wide range of sites: prehistoric graves, Viking ruins, churches, monasteries, farms, etc.

Norway has also signed the Council of Europe's European Landscape Convention, which according to its Preamble recognizes cultural heritage as "an important part of the quality of life for people everywhere: in urban areas and in the countryside, in degraded areas as well as in areas of high quality, in areas recognised as being of outstanding beauty as well as everyday areas". Many cultural heritage issues are therefore a matter of national, regional or local planning and building legislation.